theinclusiveeducator

We’ve Got an App for That: How iPads Can Support Student Reading in the Secondary Classroom

Sun, 25 Mar 2012 16:20:25 -0400

For a very long time now, technology has been one of the buzzwords in the classroom. And this is possibly the case now more than ever. Acquiring technological skills for higher education and the work place are undoubtedly some of the most important lessons for our students to take away with their diplomas, but more recently technology has taken even larger strides in supporting learning within the classroom rather than just shaping 21^st century educational standards.

Since Apple’s release of the iPad in spring 2010, educators have been talking about its potential uses in supporting and enhancing learning in the K-12 classroom. Almost a year and half later, studies are being released that conclude that the iPad does, in fact, work very well in engaging and supporting students through the variety of downloadable education apps and e-book reading support features. In this posting I will first outline how iPad apps can enhance traditional reading strategies. Then, I will address the ways that e-books accessed through iPads are making astronomical strides in supporting reading comprehension and how teachers can use these tools in the classroom. And finally, I will be briefly outline some of the successes school systems have had with the iPad. Read on to hear more!

Get out your graphic organizer

Visually organizing information with a graphic organizer is a great way to clarify information in the classroom. In fact, research has proven that nonlinguistic representations do improve student learning (Marzano, Pickering, Pollock 2001). But when was the last time you pulled out a graphic organizer worksheet to sift through the long list or emails in your inbox without forgetting the main points? Or to better understand your insurance policy? When was the last time you heard about someone’s boss handing out a KWL chart for the next big corporate meeting? It might even be fair to ask when was the last time you used a pen or pencil at work? I imagine many of us might go days without doing so.

What is more likely is that you used some form of technology to either do the job for you, make it easier to keep up with the information you needed, or to look up more information than you had in front of you. Technology in the work place has become an invaluable tool—a tool that no one questions, that feels intuitive and natural to use, and that saves tons of time and energy for businesses across the world. It is interesting, in comparison, to see how slow schools have been at taking a similar turn. As Susan McLester points out in her article on iPad learning applications, “The mobile technology market is blooming with powerful applications that have the ability to transform education with the ease of a download to any number of handheld devices” (2011, para. 1). This is especially true for reading strategies and instruction. For example, think of the popular strategy of having student visualize what they are reading: thinking about how the characters, events, and setting would look and feel if one were standing right there in the middle a scene. With the iPad, instead of having students think about what they visualize and then draw a picture of it, students can use the Flip It! iPad doodling animation app to bring what they visualize to life while reinforcing concepts and engaging and challenging their abilities to rethink, revisit, and then explain the story in a logical way (McLester, 2011, para. 8). The electronic flipbooks can also easily be uploaded to video sites like youtube.com for other students to view—a great way to use the reciprocal teaching strategy in a fresh and interesting manner. The app can be used for small and large-scale projects (up to 1,000 pages of animation), making it a great option for students who enjoy expressing their understanding visually (McLester, 2011, para. 8). Another popular app that has been tested by the St. Thomas Aquinas Middle School in Red Deer, Alberta, Canada is the Wolfram Alpha “supercomputer” that lets users type in queries to learn basic information and includes visual supports such as charts and graphs (McLester, 2011, para. 21). The product contains more than 10 trillion pieces of data, and unlike those wiki-sites that are so easy to use but undependable as academic sources, Wolfram Alpha’s information is given from a variety of top experts in a variety of academic fields in order to “create something that will stand as a major milestone of 21st century intellectual achievement” (Wolfram Alpha, 2011). The principal of the middle school touted the programs ability to clarify concepts in a multidisciplinary light. Elements such as definitions, word-origin, synonyms, and narrower terms of use help deepen understanding of abstract concepts and show relationships between various uses of a term (McLester, 2011, para. 9)

Meeting students where they are at: iPad e-books and e-textbooks

Perhaps most exciting thing that iPad’s offer to support reading instruction are the built-in feature of their e-books. Studies have shown that only 6% of high school students are advanced readers (Robb, 2003, pg. 28). Even students who are proficient readers frequently wrestle with working through new subject vocabulary and dense textbooks. Those who struggle with reading stand even less of a chance, often choosing not to read rather than trying and failing (Robb, 2003, pg. 28). While it is easy to say the textbooks are just too hard, giving students the tools to conquer them is a better answer than placing blame. Applications such as those available for e-textbooks on the iPad make reading strategies for comprehending difficult tasks almost effortless and absolutely intuitive because they are built right in to the text. These apps also keep struggling students from being ostracized or singled out for needing extra help because everyone has the tools available just in case. And like all learning strategies—tools that benefit struggling students often end up benefiting everyone.

In their article on Inquire Biology, a high school e-textbook, Aaron Spaulding, Adam Overholtzer, John Pacheco, Jing Tien, Vinay K. Chaudhri, Dave Gunning, Peter Clark (2011) give and in-depth explanation of the built-in features available to a student using an iPad for reading. This e-textbook, like many available for use on the iPad, includes tools for selective underlining, word and concept maps, built-in definitions that are linked to fuller glossary definitions, note taking that appears next to textbook content, read-aloud features, table of contents tabs, and a question/answer feature that literally lets the student type in a question and then answers it for them without every losing their reading place, not the mention that all the app tools mentioned in the previous section can be accessed intermittently during reading (Spaulding et. al., 2011). Figures 1-4 (Spaulding et. al., 2011) below gives a quick visual idea of how some of these features work.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

The text is also easy to read, the background and font changeable, and the layout is aesthetically clean and pleasing. These e-textbooks absolutely meet students where they are. When every student has access to tools like these, every student has access to their textbook—something we can’t say about every student with the print books they often use right now.

Supports for the reading teacher

The iPad not only supports and challenges student in the classroom, but it also supports the teacher. Ostashewki and Reid (2009) give the example of Ukrainian a folk dance teacher who, due to the variety of the dance moves and complexity of the motor skills required, cannot be experts at every dance movement, specifically ones that are gender specific. “The iPad,” Ostashewki and Reid explain, “allows for mobile on-the-spot demonstration using exemplar videos from a large handheld database. The ability to finely control video playback and display it for small groups of students is a key affordability of this device” (2009, pg. 2893). Similarly, in the reading classroom the iPad allows teachers to access scholarly material they may themselves not be experts on. iTunes U, for example, has tons of free downloadable audio and video podcasts ranging from famous manuscripts to textual criticism to actual audio books and authors series all available for public use and all available for free. Content is uploaded from a variety of sources such as museums, universities, cultural institutions, and public television stations, but institutions can build their own sites for teachers to upload material as well. The Georgia Department of Education, for example, has an iTunes U site with videos on professional development issues such as how to tackle bullying and investing class time wisely to subject-specific supports to student achievement features (Apple, 2011). Building the site is easy to do, and once the site is live, faculty members can start posting content right way—lectures, lab demonstrations, historical footage, and whatever else they choose to help bring their subjects to life (Brabazon, 2007, pg. 80). The popular education site Edutopia is also nowon iTunes U, giving students, parents and teachers the ability to instantly download Edutopia’s Core Concept documentary videos highlighting public school innovations in project learning, technology integration, teacher development, social and emotional learning, assessment and integrated studies, and a selection of more than seventy-five videos from the organization’s archives is available now (Curriculum Review, 2008).

In the classroom

Because of the incredible opportunities iPads offer for supporting reading comprehension through both apps and e-textbook features, having an iPad in the hand of every child makes a lot of sense. In fact, it sounds like the future of education. But finding room in the budget for new technology can be incredibly difficult, especially in such strained economic times. And while a 1-1 iPad program in every school would be wonderful, we know it is unrealistic for many schools at this point in time. Instead of focusing on the difficulty of 1-1 programs, however, many schools seem to be looking at different approaches, such as having several iPads per class to be used individually or through group work or equipping libraries with a classroom set to be checked out by teachers. The number of iPads available for use will obviously impact the teacher’s ability to use them for textbook reading, but the iPad apps often lend themselves just as much to group work as to individual use. A high school English teacher, for example, may choose to have students work in groups making vocabulary flashcards using the free app “Flashcardlet” (Apple, 2011). Groups can then exchange iPads and quiz each other using student generated study tools. iPad apps can also help support literature study. The “Shakespeare In Bits” apps by Mindconnex Learning offers a fully animated study edition of Shakespeare plays. Romeo and Juliet, for example, features the voices of Kate Beckinsale and Michael Sheen and offers modern translations for difficult words and phrases, complete study notes for each section, plot summaries, analysis, and other tools for making Shakespeare accessible for struggle readers. In addition to the reading supports, every line of every scene is illustrated through three hours of animation (Apple, 2011). Students could work either together using the audio or individually reading the side-by-side main play view that presents the animations and the text at the same time while also having access to features such as character relationship maps, which demonstrate key relationships in the play, and biographies for each character, accessed from the main play or through the cast browser (Apple, 2011).
Elementary school teachers have even more reading support options with the iPad. An early childhood or early elementary school teacher, for example, may choose to use the “Site Words” app to help students learn to recognize site words in groups or individually, “Jigwords” to help student match verb forms, or “Your ABCs” which allows students to add their own text and photos to illustrate the alphabet. Because of the variety of English language support apps, teachers may also wish to make iPads available to ELL students on a more frequent basis. Their small size allows for discrete use of the applications without the student needing to feel uncomfortable for having to ask questions so frequently and voice translators apps can translate texts in one language to speech in another (Demski, 2011, para 14). The iPad also gives easy access to interactive distance education in which tutors, long-distance teachers, and experts in the field could talk face to face with students with the double camera technology in which users can either see the person they are talking to or see what the person they are talking to is seeing.

The results so far

We know the iPad will not completely replace desktop computers or laptops in the classroom. No one wants to type a term paper on a screen that small. But for the consumption of information, the transportation of textbooks, and access to both more supportive and challenging content, the iPad absolutely seems to be one of the tools of the future. While there are other notebooks on the market, the iPad’s volume of features and vibrancy of design seem to be enough to let it pull ahead of its competitors (Waters, 2010, para. 8). Julie Bohnenkamp, director of technology for Center Grove Community School Corporation in Greenwood, IN, which is launching an iPad pilot program, loves the innovation and accessibility of the apps (Waters, 2010, para. 8). Bohnenkmap also recognizes its limitations, however, voicing her expectation the iPad will augment regular computers rather than replace them (Waters, 2010, para. 13). CIO of the New York City Department of education had similar opinion of the iPad. The iPad fills a gap, but it does not replace the need for laptops, netbooks, and desktop computers, he says (Waters, 2010, para. 14). Apart from the variety of apps, what the iPad seems to be offering teachers that nothing else has done so far is what many are referring to as the “wow factor” (Water, 2010, para. 14). Sometimes what students need the most, Bohnenkamp and many others agree, is an educational tool that gets them excited about learning (Water, 2010, para. 17). And while the iPad has numerous uses for supporting learning in the classroom, this characteristic may quite possibly be the one that educators initially look forward to the most.

Time for a new model: virtual high schools and online learning options

Sun, 25 Mar 2012 16:16:00 -0400

In a time of back to the basics education driven by standardized testing and cuts in school budgets and resources, it may seem counterintuitive to think of adding more course options and more technology to current academic menus. In spite of these facts, the number of K-12 students taking online courses is on the rise (Davis, 2009, para. 1). In 2008 Massachusetts based researchers Sloan Consortium estimated that more than 1 million students were taking classes online, a 47 percent from the previous school year (Davis, 2009, para. 2). Seventy-five percent of the polled districts offering an online component also had at least one student taking a class completely online and two out of three school districts surveyed expect their online-course enrollments to climb (Davis, 2009, para. 3). No doubt those number have risen even higher since the date of that poll. Statistics like these prove that schools are looking for a new model for the classroom—one that can “serve both students and teachers” by shifting our focus “from the three R’s to an education system that builds skills in the three C’s: content, collaboration, and community” (Pape, 2005, p. 12). By offering online courses and virtual schools, educators can “focus on building students’ literacy skills so they can ask questions, define inquiry, research multiple sources, authenticate sources of information, process and synthesize data and information, draw conclusions, and develop action plans based on their newfound knowledge […] while filtering the vast quantity of information they receive and determining what is authentic, useful, and of value” (Pape, 2005, p. 12). High schools are and should offer online courses not only because it increases the number of classes a school can offer, but also because it prepares students to thrive in a global economy where collaborating, communicating, and connecting through digital forms is essential. Read on to hear more!

Models of K-12 online education

While the model for virtual high schools can vary as much as the student populations they strive to serve, today most virtual high schools are state or district funded and designed to meet an individual state or district’s needs. Virtual high school programs often include a combination of college courses offered to high school students online and high school level courses offered to meet a variety of needs. Podoll and Randle (2005) give the example of South Dakota’s Rapid City Academy, an alternative high school program for South Dakota’s Rapid City Area Schools. This virtual high school is funded by the Rapid City Area School district and is almost devoted entirely to providing a largely at-risk student population with flexible learning options—a population they notice needing special attention in their district, although each district can specialize course offerings as they see fit for their student body. At Rapid City Academy, students dealing with teenage parenthood, high absentee rates, low socioeconomic status, and medical and/or personal challenges that impact their ability to succeed in the traditional classroom setting are able to obtain their high school diploma despite difficult circumstances (para. 1). The academy is also able to use the online learning forum to differentiate instruction for these students through instructional methods such as smaller student-teacher ratios, individualized learning plans, strategy-based learning, flexible schedules, and independent and group-led classes” (para. 1). Other online course options allow student who wish to graduate early, remediate classes to catch up with their original graduating class, or simply take additional course work in an area in which they are interested. “But not all participants fit the archetype of the typical high school-aged learner” Podoll and Randle say. One non-traditional student was able to return and complete his high school diploma after more than 50 years—a feat that would probably be unfathomable for an adult that age in the traditional classroom setting (Podoll and Randle, 2005, para. 3).

Another emerging trend in online education is nonprofit virtual cooperatives such as TheVirtual High School (VHS) that serves 250 high schools nationally and abroad. Out of the three opt-in models VHS offers, the most popular option is one of give and take: for every teacher the school “donates” the school receives 25 spots for students per semester in any of the 425 courses currently offered (VHS, 2011). The teachers at this school are licensed employees of the state in which their home school resides and they design their own innovative courses with the help of VHS mentors and instructional technology experts (VHS, 2011). Other options include a Student Only membership with options beginning at 10 students per semester and individual student enrollment based on an application process and individual tuition fee (VHS, 2011). For students involved in VHS this means that they now have access to instruction that is not otherwise available to them and interaction with students they probably would have never had the chance to meet had they not taken these courses. Hudson High School’s principal John Stapefeld, for example, says that offering online coursework ‘broadens curriculum in a way beyond what we’d normally be able to offer” (Trotter, 2002, para. 8). Andrew Trotter reported in his 2002 interview with Stapefeld that this small Massachusetts town has been able to offer students a learning experience unimaginable before:

“One student, for example, is taking a media studies course online from a teacher in Malaysia. Another is studying technology and multimedia from a teacher in Georgia. A third is taking honors American studies from a teacher in Clinton, Mass. Classmates enroll from throughout the nation, and some from as far away as Asia, Europe, and South America.”

Hudson High School is a great example of a growing number of high schools that are looking to e-learning and virtual classrooms as a way “to poke holes in traditional classroom and curriculum boxes and let new information, perspectives, and options pour in” (Trotter, 2002, para. 7). Important to note, however, is that neither Rapid City Academy nor Hudson High are looking to replace regular core curriculum classes. Their hope is to supplement those classes in a way that allows schools to differentiate curriculum for diverse learners and offer additional ways for students to build digital literacy skills.

Meeting the needs of a diverse student body

Educational psychology has been telling us for a long time now that a one-size-fits-all model for education does not meet the needs of a diverse student body. Yet, one of the foremost frustrations teachers voice today is the difficulty they face in providing the right kind of instruction to students with varying needs. Recent studies suggest that online education may be just one of the answers our schools need to address this problem. Michelle Davis’s 2009 Education Week article on web-based classrooms reports that, “survey results indicate that online learning is meeting a wide range of student needs from remedial to accelerated instruction […] It provides the ability to offer coursework that is otherwise unavailable at a child’s school, which we find to be especially significant in rural counties” (para. 4). Not only are schools now providing more options, though, they are providing them and seeing students excel. Podoll and Randle (2005) offer an interesting look at qualified research on instructor and student experiences with online course. They write that while studying the Rapid Area Academy’s online programs the Illinois Online Network found that “asynchronous discussions in an online course allowed the learner time to think and reflect on presented content material.” It was reported that the students seemed more engaged in learning when they were give more time to consider responses and students learning seemed deeper because they were having to discuss and be active participants in the learning processes rather than passively receive facts. Because of this “88 percent of academy instructors identified reflective learning, student engagement, and student-centered instruction as advantages of online instruction.” In addition to positive instructor observations, student feedback regarding their experiences taking online courses indicated that they actually did feel a personal connectedness to the instructor through the use of e-mail, threaded discussions, and journaling. Students also noted enjoying learning to use new forms of technology (Podoll and Randle, 2005, para. 7-8).

Concerns

Despite findings such as these, many educators still say the idea of online course work for middle and high schools raises some questions in their mind. The two of the most common concerns deal with what happens to “real” teachers when learning goes online and the isolated environment of online learning might limit students opportunities to build speaking, listening, and social skills. In response to the latter concern, it should be reiterated that none of the programs surveyed for this paper were attempting to replace or take students away from the core curriculum their schools were offering—programs that do so should raise serious concerns. Students do need to engage in conversations with each other and with teachers face-to-face in real time. Virtual learning, at least at this point in time, seems to be an attempt to very practically supplement our high school course offering and our students’ global experiences in a way that the traditional classroom has not be able to do on its own. Our students need both sets of communication skills. In response to the former question, educators should be reassured by the fact that real teachers are teaching these courses. No one is being pushed out of a job. In fact, over 85 percent of VHS teachers hold master’s degrees in education, 19 percent of VHS teachers hold master’s degrees plus additional credits, or doctorate degrees, and VHS teachers have an average of 16 years of teaching experience (VHS, 2011). Of those with over 10 years of teaching experience, almost fifty percent of those individuals have been educators for more than 20 years (VH, 2011). It is interesting that teachers for the most part have been spared the technology transition that those in the private sector had to adjust to quite a while ago. Real teachers will not be losing any jobs because schools offer online courses, but if schools are going to offer the online options our students need, they will have to start evolving with the system

Other concerns about offering online courses in K-12 include technical difficulties such as limited access to the Internet, computer failures, time management, and access to resources. Housekeeping issues like these are valid concerns, but should be tackled as kinks to work out in providing the options our students need, not roadblocks keep us from moving into the future. Schools will need to reallocate resources to keep computers and systems updated, but they should be doing this anyway. Denying our students the chance to use the technology they need to be familiar with when they graduate because we cannot find a way to work the kinks out a system that could be better is a poor excuse for providing inadequate education. Many proponents of offering online course work would say should be the biggest concern for educators is the standardization and accountability of these courses. While this topic goes beyond the scope of this paper, it seems to be the most recent thought on online educators’ minds as online courses surely warrant being held to the same standards we hold our traditional classrooms.

Concluding thoughts

Our students are growing up in a world unfettered by time and local. They have the ability to, and often are, connected globally every waking moment of their day. The truth is, no one’s job is restricted to his or her cubical anymore–the 21^st century workplace is one with global connections. If our schools are going to prepare our students for their future, they should be striving to prepare students to communicate, collaborate, and connect in a global economy. It is imperative that we ensure they can start building those skills before leaving our classrooms. At the same time, our schools are struggling to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse students population. Imagine a school being able to offer and additional 425 courses—that’s the possibility to meet 425 different students’ individual needs. While there are still kinks to be worked out, the educational model is shifting whether we like it or not. The question is: will you be moving with it?

Accomodating ELLs in the High School Classroom

Mon, 19 Mar 2012 00:01:00 -0400

The current status of bilingualism in this country is a complicated one, both inside and outside of the classroom. Teachers are increasingly faced with the task of educating children who do not speak English as their first language and many who do not speak it at all. At the elementary level this task may seem manageable: all young children are learning to speak, read, and write the English language properly. At this high school level, however, this becomes a much more daunting task.

Research shows that learning a second language becomes more difficult the older a person gets and after a certain age people rarely achieve the level of fluency they have in their first language (Barry, 2008, 227). Add to that the task of becoming academically literate in seven or eight subjects, each with its own specialized vocabulary, and the task might even seem near impossible. Thankfully, there are educators who refuse to let it be so. This posting analyzes the past and current situation of bilingual education in American high schools and the ways in which teachers and researchers are working to close the academic language gap. Read on to hear more!

What is the history of English Language Learning instruction?

Possibly one of the biggest problems facing the teaching of ELL students is the lack of consistency and clarity on the subject. When the Federal Constitution was written it made no mention of language, allowing linguistic differences to play out as they may. In her book Linguistic Perspectives on Language and Education, Anita K. Barry (2008) points out that, “at times of relative peace and prosperity, the country has been accepting of other languages. In the early 1900s, for example, German-speaking populations in this country had their own schools and newspapers” (224). She goes on to point out that when the country has experienced a poor economy, however, or when Immigration has swollen to the point that people felt it has threatened their culture, “attitudes toward languages other than English become more hostile” (Barry, 2008, 224). The two world wars, for example, had an extremely negative effect on attitudes toward foreign languages, to the extent that during World War I people renamed many foods with foreign associations and the number of students taking foreign languages in high schools dropped significantly, not just in German, but in all languages, proving that American citizens see the English language as an inherent part of their national identity (Barry, 2008, 227). The use of languages other than English, as a result of this association, have historically becomes threatening and “foreign” rather than adding what could be seen as a positive amount of diversity to the American voice.

The educational system in the United States has historically had to deal with the same attitudes and their treatment of ELL students reflects this stance. Until recently, American schools used a submersion method of teaching ELLs, forcing them to either sink or swim in English-speaking classrooms without any kind of organized accommodations made for their limited proficiency in the language. The submersion method eventually raised serious concerns about a child’s right to equal access to education and the strain of having to learn subject matter at the same time one is learning the language in which the subject matter is taught. Barry (2008) outlines the evolution of ELL education after the 1968 Bilingual Education Act, which “provided for federal funds to be used to facilitate the transition from a child’s first language to English, which paved the way for the development of bilingual education programs throughout the country” (p. 225). By 1974, she writes, the Supreme Court ruling in the case of Lau v. Nichols ruled that, “students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education,” forcing the San Francisco Unified School District to establish bilingual programs in several languages and marking the beginning of bilingual education programs across the country (Barry, 2008, p. 226).

Once there was a legal framework for bilingual education, the question turned from whether to do it to how it should be implemented. Two philosophies of bilingual education came out of the Bilingual Education Act: the transitional model, which emphasizes helping ELLs to become proficient in English so that they can have equal access to subject matter, and the maintenance model, which emphasizes nurturing and sustaining a child’s first language and culture (Barry, 2008, p. 226). While the legal wording of the Bilingual Education Act obviously favors a transitional model, examples of both programs can be found around the country, with each school district and school working out the details at the local level (Barry, 2008, p. 226). Areas with a strong non-English speaking ethnic influence are more likely to favor the maintenance method than, say, the Midwest or Northeast. Barry (2008) records an interesting example of the maintenance type in New Mexico where educational administrators and Native American tribal authorities work together to set up bilingual education policies (p. 227). Debates over the relative value of the transitional vs. the maintenance model of bilingual education are not likely to subside any time soon. What many mark as a positive sign is that the issue is being addressed at all.

What are some research-based models being used today?

Today English Language Learners (ELLs) represent the fastest growing segment of the public school populations making the method of ELL instruction more important than ever (Perez and Holmes, 2010, p. 32). Yet analysis of the academic performance of ELLs on the 2005 National Assessment of Educational Progress indicates that, “only 29 percent of ELLs in eighth grade scored at or above the basic level in reading compared to 73% of non-ELLs” (Perez and Holmes, 2010, 32). National assessment results such as these are especially unsettling given that the influence of literacy proficiency on students’ achievement grows stronger with each consecutive grade level. But regardless of what the test scores say, there are educators who are making some headway developing innovative ways to close the gap in academic literacy.

One of the most popular models being implemented across the country is the Structured Information Observation Protocol Model (SIOP). The SIOP Model is a transitional model, but what makes it different from models of a similar nature is its level of detail. In the SIOP Model, language and content objectives are systematically woven into the grade-level curriculum that teachers present to students through modified instruction in English (Short, n.d, p. 1). Through the use of eight different steps, teachers systematically develop students’ academic language proficiency as part of their lessons, paying careful attention to the English learners’ second language development needs.

The first step in the SIOP model encourages teachers to really be purposeful when preparing to teach ELL students by clearly defining content and language objects and using supplementary and adapted content materials (graphs, models, visual) that can meet their needs (Short, n.d.). The teacher is also encouraged to plan “meaningful activities” that integrate lesson concepts with language practice opportunities. The second step involves building an understanding of the student’s background experiences both in and outside the classroom (Short, n.d). This step is important because if a teacher knows his or her student’s background they can connect new concepts and language to the student’s previous knowledge. The third step, comprehensible input, asks teachers to make sure that they are using speech appropriate for the student’s proficiency level such as slower rate and careful sentence structure, clearly explaining all tasks and expectations, and using modeling, visuals, and hands-on activities for reassurance. The fourth step outlines the strategies that should be used when teaching (Short, n.d., p. 3). They include using scaffolding techniques throughout the lesson and varying the types of questions used, included those that promote higher-order thinking skills throughout the lesson. The fifth step asks teachers to let their students regularly interact verbally with native English speakers (Short, n.d., p. 3). Discussions with peers can often clarify and confirm the connections ELL students are making between language and content.

The sixth step, once again, emphasizes using hands-on materials and activities to practice and apply content and language knowledge (Short, n.d., p. 3). Activities that ask a student to communicate understanding through reading, writing, listening, and speaking will help them become literate at a faster rate. The method of lesson delivery is the seventh step and really reiterates many of the suggestions outlined earlier (Short, n.d., p. 4). Content and language objectives should be clear and followed through in the lesson and students should be engaged 90-100 percent of the time. Pacing, however, should still be appropriate to the student’s ability level. Step eight, the review and assessment step, calls for a comprehensive review of all concept and language instruction, as well as regular feedback on how the students are progressing (Short, n.d., p. 4). And lastly, SIOP is unique because it has a detailed review process to help educators and administrators find the kinks in the system and make the changes that will benefit their ELL students. According to The University of Nebraska School of Education, the SIOP model is “a proven [emphasis added] approach for sheltered instruction that helps English language learners develop oral language proficiency while building academic English literacy skills and subject area knowledge” (University of Nebraska, 2010).No doubt this research-based and proven approach lends to the SIOP Model’s popularity, as many of the models in the educational sphere cannot yet claim the same.

Shifting from the transition model to the maintenance model is Della Perez and Melissa Holmes’ Dimensions Model. The Dimension Model is somewhat similar to the SIOP Model in application but slightly different in theory. Most efforts to develop students’ English skills are well intentioned, Perez and Holmes say, but fall short of addressing each of the four interrelated dimensions of culturally and linguistically diverse student (Perez and Holems, 2010, p. 32). Each dimension in this model, therefore, plays its own critical role in the development the whole ELL student at the secondary level. The Dimensions Model also takes the focus of away from what students lack and emphasizes what they bring to the classroom: diverse cultural and linguistic experiences and knowledge. This model focuses on nurturing all aspects of the “culturally and linguistically diverse” student’s experience with school and the English language while upholding the value of their cultural and linguistic heritage (Perez and Holmes, 2010, 33). Application of this model, much like the SIOP Model, calls for an integration of language instruction into content teaching rather than focusing predominantly on the acquisition of English, which emphasizes what a student lacks. The first dimension in this model is the sociocultural dimension. The sociocultural dimension gets to the heart of the student—toward the influences and experiences that motivate, influence, and/or hinder his or her literacy development (Perez and Holmes, 2010, p. 34). Understanding the interests, personalities, family background, and former experiences with education provide teachers with avenues for determining the types of literacy skills and experiences that they can use to bridge the students existing knowledge to content area concepts and vocabulary. The second dimension, the linguistic dimension, goes beyond the language of the classroom and involves comprehension, communication, and expression in both the native language and English (Perez and Holmes, 2010, p. 35). Teachers often find it helpful to remember that knowledge obtained via one language is added to a common, underlying proficiency, or knowledge base, that can be accessed via either language. Given that fact, this model could easily be used in a completely bilingual classroom, but certainly does not require it.

The third dimension of the model is the academic dimension. This dimension relates to the students past and present experiences in school. Because many ELL students have experienced interrupted access to schooling, teachers must be careful to ensure that they are receiving appropriate grade level content and language instruction (Perez and Holmes, 2010, p. 37). Teachers should encourage these students to use their prior knowledge in the classroom and structure their class to include lots of group work rather than isolated a student in front of the class. Because of the language barrier, formative assessments should also be used when possible. Attending to this dimension is “vital to the hope” that ELL students have for their academic futures (Perez and Holmes, 2010, 38). The final dimension in this model, the cognitive dimension, involves the way students know, think, and apply information (Perez and Holmes, 2010, p. 39). The cultural background of an ELL will influence the way he or she processes and communicates information. It is therefore vital for teachers to be flexible and patient, while providing opportunities for students to learn about and use cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective strategies.

What do models such as these mean for my classroom?

While this paper only presented two examples out of the all the models of English language learning instruction available, collectively they paint a fairly good picture of what educators are currently accepting as the best way to simultaneously educate English language learners in content and language. The SIOP Model encourages teachers to systematically and thoughtfully help ELL students transition into the English language through the use of precise instructional methods that could really be considered good for any student. The Dimensions model encourages the same style of accommodative teaching, but also calls for teachers to uphold and utilize the diverse and cultural and linguistic experiences ELL students have had. Despite the method administrators decide to use within a school or district, what can be assuring to content area teachers is that “research has indicated that ELLs benefit from the same explicit, systematic instruction proven to be effective for native English speakers” (Tissington and LaCour, 2010, p. 166). In order for ELL students to achieve academic literacy, using interactive instruction, group work, and visual aids must be integral to teaching. But as most teachers already know, those techniques are the best way to present material to any student. Beyond these methods researchers seem to be saying that the best thing to keep in mind is that these students deserve to be recognized and deserve to be given the chance to achieve at their full potential. After all, “The child’s first experience with school, both positive and negative, has been shown to have a lasting effect” (Tissington and LaCour, 2010, p. 166). Why not ensure that your impression is a positive and lasting one?

Making Learning Meaningful through School-Community Partnerships

Sun, 18 Mar 2012 23:58:00 -0400

We all remember what its like to sit through a class that is seemingly useless, and there are reasons why phrases like, “I’m pretty sure my IQ just dropped ten points” or “I totally just lost brain cells” or “That’s an hour of my life I’ll never get back,” exist: because students believe they are true. And maybe they are. Too often, many researchers say, students are disengaged from the teaching methods and material they are offered in school and they are missing the chance to have meaningful experiences with challenging, pertinent knowledge (Jensen, 2006, p. 208, Cole, 2010, p. 15). It is not fair to expect them to stay interested, or to stay in school, or perform at their highest ability, or any other number of things educators ask of them, if parents, community members, and teachers are not willing to take the steps to make schooling worthwhile, to make what they are learning mean something other than a good grade. Well-implemented school-community partnerships are one way in which teachers and administrators are working to build these meaningful experiences. By turning traditional classrooms into “contextual immersions,” students can start to “build identities as contributing members of a larger community” and to see learning as rich and meaningful (Cole, 2010, p. 15). Read on to learn about different ways that schools and communities are expanding the walls of the classroom and bringing authentic intellectual work and experiences within our students’ reach.

It is my belief that classroom content should be relevant and interesting to all students—not just the college bound, not just the academically inclined, and certainly not just the privileged. As a future teacher, I also believe that building vibrant school and community partnerships has the potential to make education into something that everyone pitches in on, that everyone values, and that is relevant to all students. Research has shown that if students do not see the point in learning something, they either will not learn it or will not retain it for long (Jensen, 2006, p. 68). School-community partnerships are one way that I believe schools can work to alleviate this problem. This posting first outlines what school-community partnerships are and how these partnerships can support classroom teaching. The second part of the post then moves into a discussion of a few research-based models of school-community partnerships and the success rate of schools that have applied them. The last part of the post looks at what can be learned from research on school-community partnerships and how educators can utilize this research to build better partnerships in the future.

What is a school-community partnership?

Most simply stated, a school-community partnership is a relationship that is created between a school, district, or classroom and a community group, organization, or entity that works together to support learning and student success. This type of learning, called community-based learning, is active, connected with the classroom but taking place in meaningful, dynamic environments (Cole, 2010, p. 15). Community-based learning is also longitudinal, involving the building of a long-term community of support rather than just having students take part in one onetime community service projects. They are not merely made up of organizational sponsorships or donations, or any other form of surface level involvement on the part of the community. Successful school-community partnerships are about real relationships between students and the community, ones that have the potential to turn “contextual immersions” into lessons that mean something to students and that “build [their] identities as contributing members of a larger community” and that make learning rich and meaningful (Cole, 2010, p. 15). School-community partnerships are also each unique, because they offer “the full richness of authentic contexts,” contexts that are specific to each students life and the community that surrounds them (Cole, 2010, p. 15).

Why should educators be concerned with increasing authentic interest in school and what happens to a bored brain?

For a long time it was believed that the interchange between genes and the mind was oneway. The common belief has been that our genes are fixed and thus our intelligence and our tendencies are fixed as well. In his book titled Enriching the Brain: How to Maximize Every Learner’s Potential, Eric Jensen (2006) proposes just the opposite idea. Through his own research and the recent studies of neuroscientists, it has now been proven that people actually do have the chance to change their brains, to maximize their learning potential, and even to potentially raise their IQ scores through the occurrence of gene-environment interplay called “gene expression” (p. 6). As Jensen points out, this theory has huge implications for educators. Jensen refers to this “maximizing of gene expression” as enrichment, or “the positive biological response to a contrasting environment, in which measurable, synergistic, and global changes have occurred” (2006, p. 47). The results of proper enrichment, then, are an “enrichment response,” which results in two happenings: the first enhances students’ ability to learn and retain information and positively affects the cognition of average to gifted learners; the secondincludes the possibility for enrichment to improve the cognition of those with impaired learning, the disadvantaged, or brain damaged (Jensen, 2006, p. 81). Central to obtaining the enrichment response, Jensen writes, is the application of the law of contrast, or the law that says for learning to stick and influence gene-expression it must be “novel, challenging, and meaningful” (2006, p. 80). While many teachers are good at making classroom learning novel and challenging, the meaningful part often gets pushed to the side. And so we have bored students. Or we have students that think, “School just isn’t for me.” Or they act out. Or maybe even they drop out. And they do so because brains do not handle boredom well: they want to novel and challenging tasks. In fact, Jensen records that “in animal studies, the negative effects of boredom on the dendrites of brain cells are significant” (2006, p. 70). “Infact,” he says, “there’s a greater negative from boredom than there is a positive from enrichment” (Jensen, 2006, p. 70).

Why would a school or district consider establishing school-community partnerships?

Not many adults are forced to spend their days doing tasks that do no make sense to them or that seem meaningless. A good question, then, is why do we expect it of our students? It has been stated why learning must be meaningful to be enriching. But how to make learning meaningful is probably the more difficult question. For learning to be meaningful it must address students’ present lives and be pertinent to their future; in other words, it must be “worthwhile” (Jensen, 2006, p. 67). Anna Gahl Cole (2010), a researcher from the University of Arizona who studied a community partnership at an urban magnet school called the “Second Tuesday Project,” points out that at the heart of school-community partnerships is the desire to make learning relevant, meaningful, challenging, interesting, and novel for all students by “situating it in local and familiar issues, contexts, and challenges.” “Curriculum is deeply connected to the people, landscapes, cultures, and politics students can know and experience locally,” she says. In order to create these “authentic learning community contexts,” schools must build local partnerships that can enrich student learning. Many researchers go on to argue that community partnerships bring about a sense of civic duty and connectedness. Community partnerships, they say, can also increase student motivation and engagement while guiding students to see the world as an interdependent place where they play a vital role (Cole, 2010, p. 15).

What does research say about the influence of school-community partnerships?

Research on school-community partnerships indicates that they have the potential to be very powerful support systems for learning, but that it is easy for problems implementing the programs to hinder their success. Jensen takes up this topic in his chapter called “School andClassroom Solutions” (Jensen, 2006, p. 228). He cites complex learning projects, such a the project Minuteman High School in Foxboro, Massachusetts which uses a school-community partnership to annually involve 120 students from all different classes, teams, and groups in yearlong projects to design and build a house (Jensen, 2006, p. 229). “There’s no doubt,” he says, “that, compared with what those students would have gotten in a more traditional school, their curriculum is vastly more likely to lead to enrichment” (Jensen, 2006, p. 229). Career-based learning is another avenue that can utilize the local community and provide enrichment that students may not obtain in the traditional classroom. Jensen gives the example of David Douglas High School in Portland, Oregon, a school of 2,600 students with forty-nine percent in poverty, thirty-four percent are minority, and twenty-seven percent are ESL, that, incredibly, boasts having eighty-four percent of the high school’s students pursue higher education opportunities (Jensen, 2006, p. 229). This phenomenon can, at least in part, be attributed to their efforts to establish career-based education and community mentorship programs that provide meaningful curriculum and make learning relevant to students’ futures. Other examples of community-based learning programs that can provide enrichment are after-school educational partnership programs such as The Boys and Girls Club or programs such as 4-H (Jensen, 2006, p. 234-235).

Results from studies on school-community partnerships by The National Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS), on the other hand, have been a little more conflicting. The NNPS, established in 1995 by Dr. Joy L. Epstein of Johns Hopkins University, is a program that provides professional development to enable school, district, and state leaders to develop research-based programs of family and community evolvement (NNPS, 2011). Based on Epstein’s theory of overlapping spheres of influence, the program emphasizes the importance of schools, families, and communities recognizing the individual influence they have each have over the growth of America’s children and urges each entity to work together to meet the needs of America’s students (Sanders and Epstein, 1998, p. 3). Her theories have been the driving force behind the implementation of NNPS for sixteen years now, integrating educational, sociological, and psychological perspectives on social organizations, as well as research on the effects of family, school, and community partnerships (NNPS, 2011). The Partnership Schools model claims to be one of the few research-based approaches designed to help schools, districts, and state departments of education organize, implement, and sustain goal-linked programs of family and community involvement. The research identifies “essential elements for effective programs and specific processes and paths that strengthen leadership for partnerships, program plans, outreach to involve more families, responses of families and community partners, and impact on student achievement and other indicators of success in school” (Epstein, 2005, para. 2).

Like Jensen, the NNPS found that children with well-developed social networks have more positive educational outcomes than children without them (Sanders and Epstein, 1998, p. 2). In spite of the enormous amount of effort that has gone into creating partnerships across the country, however, the conclusion of many of the NNPS’ reports have provided are not quite as convincing as one may hope for. In 2007, for example, Steven Sheldon (another NNPS researcher) reported that analyses of his study showed that in schools working to implement school, family, and community partnerships, student attendance improved on average only .5 percent (p. 267). Moreover, his analysis suggests that it was the school’s effort to reach out to families, not to the community, that was the driving mechanism that caused this effect (Sheldon, 2007, p.267). Better family involvement throughout middle school and high school was also found to contribute to positive outcomes like “higher achievement […] more course credits earned, more responsible preparation for class, and other indicators of success in school” (Epstein, 2005, para.7). A possible conclusion from this study could be that working on school-family partnerships may be more beneficial than school-community ones.

On a similar note, Anna Gahl Cole’s study of the “Second Tuesday Project” found that without carefully guided conversations about the purpose of such projects, students are often unable to fully benefit from the partnerships. Cole’s article examines the struggles and successes of teachers and students collaborating with community organizations on the “Second Tuesday Project”, a community-based research and service program at an urban high school (2010, p. 15). The project takes place as part of the capstone course in The Human Services Program at Jefferson Center High School, a magnet school that utilizes the school-with-a-school framework. The capstone course’s central focus is a community-based research project (Second Tuesday Project) that endeavors to increase understanding about the city’s efforts to improve the quality of life for its citizens. Cole records that teachers describe the project as “a team based, multidisciplinary, senior level project that requires each student to research a specific social issue within the Riverside community (i.e. homelessness, hunger, poverty, pollution, etc.) and implement a plan to help resolve that issue.” Students perform secondary research on the issue at a nearby university throughout the year and spend every second Tuesday of the month doing research “in the field” by volunteering with an agency affiliated with their topic that oversees their service. The students work in whatever capacity their mentors deem useful and are expect to observe and record research findings throughout the year in support of their final research paper and presentation. The conclusion of the project is a weeklong symposium of students’ research: students present their study to classmates, faculty, administrators, parents, and community agency representatives (Cole, 2010, p. 16).

Cole used qualitative data from interviews, participant observations, and focus groups to describe the experiences and perspectives of students and teachers participating in the project. Cole found that the program (which was 2 years old) had problems with articulating goals and purposes and she found that students were often (although not always) unable to make connections between their volunteering experiences, what was needed to make a difference in their communities, and how the experiences related to their work inside the classroom (2010, p. 24). There was one partnership that did have positive results across the board, however. The relationship that was established with the local university seemed to have to most positive influence on the students. One student explained how it felt to be allowed to take part in what she saw as a prestigious academic community: [When] People walk past, especially people who used to go to school here at Jefferson Center and they say,

“Oh, look at these seniors from Jefferson Center, look at them sitting over here working, being smart. This is cool that you all are sitting over here doing yourwork. What are you working on?” It makes me feel really smart, really smart – I loveit. (Cole, 2010, p. 19)

Implications from this study pointed toward the need for better planning and communication between teachers, students, and community members involved. Students, Cole says, were not taught how to look at their experiences reflectively or to analyze their role within the community; without this component the students are simply left with a “contextual immersion,” but no way to make meaning from it (2010, p. 22-24). It also seemed that looking into stronger high school and university relationship might be an even more beneficial rout to take. Overall, Cole found that the lack of communication and curricular planning as well as program flexibility hindered the Second Tuesday Project from being completely successful (2010, p. 22). Improvement in these areas will be integral to the success of the projects future community education partnerships.

What can be learned about improving school-community partnerships from the research presented above?

When comparing the studies of Jensen, the NNPS, and Cole, what seems to be essential to the success of school-community partnerships is how well the program’s goals are articulated to both the students and community organizations involved and how well the teacher and administrators willingness to stay dedicated and focused on the task at hand. The prevailing opinion also seems to be that researchers would benefit from having more information about the specific activities that schools implement to involve families and community members. Sheldon (2007) concluded that many researchers cite “weak evaluation design” as a large part of the problem (p. 274). He calls for “more studies of partnership interventions in which researchers used matched comparison groups that include pre- and post- designs,” (Sheldon, 2007, p. 274), as well as more “focused and subject-specific measures of partnership practices, and not overly general or superficial measures of involvement” (Epstein and Sheldon, 2006, para. 6). One could also conclude from Jensen and Cole’s work that studies should consider researching the qualitative results of school-community partnerships, focusing on how to provide an enrichment response, which tells teachers, administrators, and parents what their kids are actually getting out of the partnership, rather than data like attendance rates and high stakes test scores, which are highly impersonal and, from what studies have shown, only slightly affected by school-community partnerships. Sheldon promotes that, “These principals should help researchers frame better questions and apply more rigorous methods to study partnerships, and help educators, parents, an community partners to work better together to support student success” (2007, para.4). Studies have shown that parents and community members are interested in finding way to enrich their children’s learning experience, but they need “good, clear information from educators in order to remain involved in their children’s education from preschool through high school” (Epstein and Sheldon, 2006, para. 5).

Conclusion

Two obvious needs that research on school-community partnerships point toward are improvement in research methodology and program implementation. Teachers in charge of such programs must be committed to planning and clearly articulating partnership goals and procedures with all parties involved and then following up with meaningful conversations that help students’ analyze the significance of what they are doing, the impact they are making, and how it all connects to content within the classroom. Studies have shown that students who experience meaningful learning through school-community partnerships have slightly better attendance rates (Sheldon, 2007, p. 274), feel more connected to the community in which they live and learn (Cole, 2010, p. 15), and succeed at a higher rate than students who do not (Jensen, 2006, p.229). By partaking in meaningful learning students in school-community partnerships also experience and enrichment response, which enhances students’ ability to learn and retain information and positively affects the cognition of average to gifted learners and includes the possibility for enrichment to improve the cognition of those with impaired learning, the disadvantaged, or brain damaged (Jensen, 2006, p. 81). Overall, the research indicates that many of these partnership programs have a long way to go, but the possibilities for rich, meaningful, engaging learning experiences seem to be making the journey exceedingly worthwhile.

Bad Boy, Bad Girl

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 12:10:00 -0400

Tim is a six-year-old boy who has been brought to a family medicine clinic for an initial visit. On entering the examination room, the physician observed Tim spinning in circles on the stool while his mother pled, “If I have to tell you one more time to sit down…” Tim was not permitted to begin first grade until his immunizations were updated. His mother explained that Tim had visited several physicians for immunization but was so disruptive that the physicians and nurses always gave up. She hoped that with a new physician, Tim might comply. The mother described a several-year history of aggressive and destructive behavior, as well as four school suspensions during kindergarten. He often becomes “uncontrollable” at home and has broken dishes and furniture. Last year, Tim was playing with the gas stove and started a small fire. Tim frequently pulls the family dog around by its tail. Tim’s older sisters watched him in the past but have refused to do so since he threw a can of soup at one of them. Tim’s father is a long-haul truck driver who sees Tim every three to four weeks.

Sharon, a 15-year-old girl, was brought to the doctor’s office by her mother. Her mother explained that Sharon was suspended from school for assaulting a teacher and needed a “doctor’s evaluation” before she could return to class. The history reveals that this is Sharon’s 10th school suspension during the past three years. She has previously been suspended for fighting, carrying a knife to school, smoking marijuana and stealing money from other students’ lockers. When asked about her behavior at home, Sharon reports that her mother frequently “gets on my nerves” and, at those times, Sharon leaves the house for several days. The family history indicates that Sharon’s father was incarcerated for auto theft and assault. Sharon’s mother frequently leaves Sharon and her eight-year-old brother unsupervised overnight.

(both stories were used as illustrative cases on the Searight, H. Russell, Rottnek, Fred, and Abby, Stacey L. (2001) article on conduct disorders)

Despite their age differences, Tim and Sharon have a lot in common: they both have conduct disorders. They exhibit challenges related to self-control, anger, and impulsivity, little on-task behavior, reduced frustration tolerance, and poor self-concept and social skills (Salend, 2011, pg. 66). In the classroom these characteristics would display themselves in the following ways:

Inability to build or maintain good relationships with peers and teachers
inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances
A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
A tendency to develop physical symptoms of fears associated with personal or school problems
And most important for educators to note, an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors

(Salend, 2011, pg. 66)

This blog endeavors to show that people like Tim and Sharon are not simply bad boys and bad girls. It provides information on what a conduct disorder is, how it affects students in the classroom, and what kind of strategies teachers can use to help students with conduct disorders succeed at their full behavioral and intellectual potential.

What is a conduct specific behavior disorder?

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 12:08:00 -0400

Individuals who have emotional and behavioral disturbances exhibit significant behavioral excesses or deficits. Because of this, they will exhibit patterns of behavior that depart significantly from the expectations of others or societal norms. In recent years, “behavioral disorders” has gained favor over “emotional disturbance” as a more accurate label leading to more objective decision-making and fewer negative connotations.

IDEA defines serious emotional disturbance (SED) as “a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely affects educational performance: An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.” (CEC, 2011). The federal definition includes children who are diagnosed as schizophrenic, but excludes socially maladjusted children “unless it is determined that they are seriously emotionally disturbed” (CEC, 2011).

Conduct disorders are more specifically defined as “a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal rules or norms are violated” (American Psychiatric Association, quoted in Salend, 2011, pg. 67).This includes those with oppositional and defiant behaviors as well as those with antisocial tendencies. For more information on what conduct disorders look like see the “characteristics” post below.

Causes of conduct specific behavior disorders:

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 12:07:00 -0400

Like most behavior disorders, it is believed that the cause of conduct disorders involves an interaction of genetic/constitutional and familial/social factors. According to Searight, Rottnek, and Abby (2001), “children who have a conduct disorder may inherit decreased baseline autonomic nervous system activity, requiring greater stimulation to achieve optimal arousal. This hereditary factor may account for the high level of sensation-seeking activity associated with conduct disorder” (2001). Recent research has also been trying to delineate the neurotransmitters that influence aggression, with imbalances in serotonin most strongly associated so far (Searight, Rottnek, and Abby, 2001).

But, as earlier stated, hereditary factors are not the only influence contributing to conduct disorders. Searight, Rottnek, and Abby (2001) also outlines parental substance abuse, psychiatric illness, marital conflict, and child abuse and neglect as increasing the risk of conduct disorder. Exposure to the antisocial behavior of a caregiver is a particularly important risk factor. Children with conduct disorder, while present in all economic levels, also appear to be overrepresented in lower socioeconomic groups. Another common feature appears to be inconsistent parental availability and discipline. As a result, children with conduct disorder do not experience a consistent ties between their behavior and its consequences (Searight, Rottnek, and Abby, 2001).

The early childhood pattern for conduct disorders is similar to that of other behavior disorder patterns and includes “irritability, inconsolability and impaired social responsiveness” (Searight, Rottnek, and Abby, 2001). The response of caregivers to these behaviors, particularly caregivers who have their own psychiatric conditions and substance abuse problems, may respond with strategies that only exacerbate the problem such as coercion or inconsistent corrective behaviors or punishments. Financial stress is another common factor among families of children with conduct disorders and can cause further stress a child predisposed to have disordered behaviors. These children are also more susceptible to the rise in peer group influence that typically occurs in later elementary school and into middle and high school (Searight, Rottnek, and Abby, 2001).

Characteristics of students with conduct specific behavior disorders:

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 12:04:00 -0400

According to the Searight, Rottnek, and Abby (2001), the clinical features of a conduct disorder include four types of recognized symptoms:

1. Aggression or serious threats of harm to people or animals

2. Deliberate property damage or destruction (e.g., fire setting, vandalism)

3. Repeated violation of household or school rules, laws, or both

4. Persistent lying to avoid consequences or to obtain tangible goods or privileges.

There should be at least three specific behaviors present for at least six months for a conduct disorder to be present. Isolated behaviors, which are common in about 80 % of youth in the United States (e.g., shoplifting, experimentation with marijuana or alcohol), do not qualify a person to have a conduct disorder. A diagnosis of conduct disorder requires a persistent history of multiple problem behaviors.

Other features of conduct disorders may include an inability to appreciate the importance of others’ welfare and little guilt or remorse about harming others. Adolescents with conduct disorders often develop skills in outwardly verbalizing remorse to obtain favor or avoid punishment, but do not experience any apparent guilt. Individuals with conduct disorder often view others as threatening or malicious without having a substantial reason for doing so. As a result, these children and adolescents may lash out preemptively, and aggression may appear unprovoked.

Several common childhood psychiatric conditions have features similar to those of conduct disorder, and overlap is also common. The major categories include attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder, mood disorder (major depression, dysthymia, bipolar disorder), substance abuse and intermittent explosive disorder (Searight, Rottnek, and Abby, 2001).

School impact:

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 11:55:00 -0400

(Click on the picture above to watch a short video on the school impact of conduct disorders)

As Peter Wong stated in the video, the school impact of a student having a conduct disorder is both academic and social (2011). Students that choose to be defiant, that choose to get into fights, that choose to take drugs, will get themselves in trouble at school and get themselves in trouble with the law.They will also often miss out on class time, spend class their time in class trying to avoid doing assignments, or spend their time in school in a resource room trying to remediate their behaviors. Time spent out of class puts the student behind the rest of the class. Another concern for classrooms with a students with conduct disorders are the distraction that they cause the rest of the class.

As the Council for Exceptional Children (2011) points out, multidisciplinary educational teams, including parents, must design programs to meet the individual behavioral and academic needs of identified with conduct disorders. Most students can benefit from supportive treatments provided in regular programs. For others, at least temporary placements in special classrooms, schools, or institutional programs may be appropriate.

Special programs usually attempt to provide a structured environment where students experience a high degree of success; rules and routines are predictable; and students are consistently rewarded for appropriate behavior. Behavior management techniques, such as positive reinforcement, token economies, contracting, and time-out, which rely on direct measurement and monitoring of behavioral change, are commonly used in SED programs. The assessment and systematic teaching of social skills through modeling, discussion, and rehearsal are frequently used to help students increase control over their behavior and improve their relations with others. In addition, supportive therapies involving music, art, exercise, and relaxation techniques, as well as affective education, individual, and group counseling are sometimes employed to improve self-understanding, self-esteem, and self-control (CEC, 2011).

Prevalence:

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 11:52:00 -0400

I like the above picture because it illustrates the difficulty of pinning down exact number on statistics that measure behaviors. According to DO Bettina E Bernstein’s article on conduct disorders in Medscape Refernce, “in the United States prevalence rates for conduct disorder (CD) are estimated at 2-9%, 5 out of every 100 teenagers,” and “are complicated by relatively high rates of co-occurrence or comorbidity with other disorders” (conduct disorder). Salden’s calculated percentage is a bit more conservative, estimating 3-5% with actual identification at 1% of students (2011, pg. 66). So the exact percentage on conduct disorders, at this point at least, is unsure. We do know that boys far outnumber girls in identified cases of conduct disorders and that there is a large percentage of overlap between conduct disorders and other behavior disorders. Conduct disorders are qualitatively different from these other disorders, however, because they “clearly involves aggression or other behaviors in which the basic rights of others or common social norms are violated repeatedly” (Bernstein, 2011).

Although the percentages presented pertain to students, conduct disorders have no lower age limit. In children under 10 years, Bernstein (2011) points out, the repetitive presence of only 1 of the 15 behaviors in the Diagnostic and Statistics Manual of Mental Diseases is sufficient for the diagnosis. With this fact in mind, it is important for both health professional and educators to use caution with this label, as its overuse could possibly deter progress or even encourage misdiagnosis of the disorder. The Response to Intervention model outlined in the educational strategies section of this blog give more information on supporting student success without have to view them through a label.

Educational Strategies:

Tue, 16 Aug 2011 11:48:00 -0400

While we all know of students who actually do bang their heads to relieve stress, it should be our goal as educators to find more safe and suitable solutions to relieving the stress and academic strain that our students with conduct disorders often feel. Response to intervention (RTI) strategies are tools for supporting learning difficulties that enable educators to target instructional interventions to children’s areas of specific need as soon as those needs become apparent (IDEA, 2007). This model is currently being extended to our work with students with emotional, behavior, and conduct disorders. As with RTI for academics, “struggling students receive support as soon as possible; multiple tiers of progressively intensive support are provided to students based on need; a problem-solving, data-driven process is used to determine interventions; interventions are research-based; and students are monitored to determine progress” (CEC, 2011).

RTI for emotional and behavioral disorders contains the same basic elements as RTI for academics. Both involve a multi-tiered pyramid plan of more interventions that become more intense as needed. The most popular system of RTI involves three tiers. Observation of student performance is used to inform a problem-solving approach which is used to determine appropriate interventions and accommodations for students. A teams of teachers and professionals is often used for analysis of student progress and problem solving. Following is additional information on these components.

Tier Services in RTI for E/BD
In Tier 1, all students receive explicit instruction in behavioral expectations and a system is implemented to encourage, reinforce, and acknowledge appropriate behavior. Also, all teachers implement effective, research-based classroom management practices. Additionally, in Tier 1 all students are screened to identify those who need Tier 2 support.

For Tier 2 services, schools provide targeted interventions to students who did not respond to Tier 1 interventions or were identified through screening as needing additional support. These research-based interventions are often geared to small groups and can be easily implemented.

For Tier 3 services, schools provide intensive supports to students with the most significant behavioral needs. These supports are individualized based on the student’s specific needs. Some students may require wrap-around services, which include community services.

(from CEC, 2011)

West Virginia University (2007) offers a host of strategies for helping students with conduct disorders. Preventative measure which teachers can take to create an environment that encourages appropriate behavior such as grouping students with conduct disorders with students who display proper behaviors, having preestablished consequences for misbehavior, determining whether medication is being taken and whether the timing of the medication is affecting student performance, acknowledging the contributions of the student to the class, developing a contingency plan with the student that outlines what kind of good behaviors are supposed to replace bad ones, praising good behavior and performance often, finding out what kind of reinforcement works for the individual, and treating the student as worthy of respect and consideration.

Specific reactionary strategies include making sure punishments fits the level of misbehavior and is never harsh, giving the student time and a place to cool off after an emotional reaction or episode, enforcing classroom rules consistently, and reacting immediately to the misbehavior so that the student sees that the modification or discipline is tied directly to the unwanted action.

We also know that student with conduct disorders often struggle academically as well. Teaching skills such as self-control, self-reinforcement, self-monitoring, self-management, problem solving, cognitive behavior modification, and metacognitive strategies are as important to the academic achievement of these students as are teaching specific reading, math, science, or social studies strategies. Closely reviewing steps for individual assignments or writing the steps down helps students avoid the stress of miscommunication. Giving options for showing competency and allowing students with conduct disorders the ability to have any needed testing accommodations can also reduce anxiety and obstinacy toward completing assignments and showing competency (West Virginia University, 2007).

For more information see the following resources:

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1. The Council for Exceptional Children is a great resource for more information on the ins and outs of behavior disorders and how they effect students in the classroom. The council’s website also offers information on legal policies and advocacy for exceptional children as well as professional development resources for educators.

2. The National Library of Medicine also offers some very accessible medical information on behavior and conduct disorders through a service of their organization, the National Institutes of Health. This site has reputable articles from organizations such as the American Academy of Family Physicians and offers many of its materials in Spanish.

3. The National Institute of Mental Health, which provides much of the research used for information at the National Library of Medicine’s website, is one of the primary sources for in-depth research on child behavior disorders. This site also has information on public outreach, funding, clinical trials, and current news concerning mental health. The search mechanism on this site also makes it incredibly easy to look at articles and research on a variety of mental health topics.

4. The U.S. Department of Education offers information for educators, parents, and students on legislation, regulations, and policies concerning exceptional learners and their rights to equitable education. This following link leads to specific legislation information for students with behavior disorders: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml.

5. IDEA.gov is another great site for general information on the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and the protection exceptional students receive under the act. This site also gives information on individualized education programs (IEPs), alignment of IDEA with No Child Left Behind, and many other resources and information for safeguarding exceptional students, including those with behavior and conduct disorders.

References

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American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry (2010). Your Child—Conduct Disorders. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/cs/root/publication_store/your_child_conduct_disorders

Bernstein, Bettina E. (2011). Conduct Disorders. Medscape Reference. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/918213-overview#a1

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) (2011). Behavior Disorders/Emotional Disturbances. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Behavior_Disorders_Emotional_Disturbance.

IDEA (2007). Q and A: Questions and Answers On Response to Intervention (RTI) and Early Intervening Services (EIS). Retrieved from http://idea.ed.gov/explore/home

Salend, Spencer J (2011). Understanding the Diverse Educational Strengths and Challenges: Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Creating Inclusive Classrooms (pg. 66-67). Boston: Pearson.

Searight, H. Russell, Rottnek, Fred, and Abby, Stacey L. (2001). Conduct Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Primary Care. Am Fam Physician 63(8). Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/2001/0415/p1579.html.

Vorvick, Linda J., and Merrill, David B. (2011). Conduct Disorders. In MedlinePlus Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000919.htm.

West Virginia University (2007). Strategies for teaching students with behavior disorders. Retrieved from http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/behavior.html.

Wong, Peter (2011). Conduct Disorders and Education (video clip). Retrieved from http://www.videojug.com/interview/conduct-disorders-and-education.